17 2. Overall framework of contact phenomena the community merits inclusion because there is at least the faint or theoretical possibility of its revival, e.g. Timor Creole Portuguese used to be spoken around Dili and other centers of Timor until a few decades ago (Moseley 2007: 451). The threatened languages in Taiwan are mostly moribund (Moseley, 2007: 460), e.g. Yuwaaliyaay in Australia, in 1985 three speakers were reported (Moseley 2007: 556); Taap in Papua New Guinea (the surviving speakers have lost interest in their language) (Moseley 2007: 539); Jorá in Bolivia (in 1955 only five Jora speakers were left, today the language is probably extinct; Moseley 2007: 134). There have been many other classifications defining the stages of how safe languages are, e.g. Krauss (1992: 4) recognizes languages as viable, viable but small, endangered, nearly extinct and extinct, and Bauman (1980) speaks of flourishing, enduring, declining, obsolescent and extinct languages. The criteria defining the condition of these languages are quite similar, as “[e]ndangered languages come to be used progressively less and less throughout the community, with some of the functions they originally performed either dying out or gradually being supplanted by other languages” (Crystal 2000: 21). Taking into account the different stages a language may undergo, it can be observed that language is a dynamic phenomenon that is prone to multiple changes, especially under unfavorable circumstances. It can be compared to a living organism, i.e. it is born (out of the need of communication), it gradually evolves (as can be seen based on examples of the stages of pidgin development), it changes (in most cases through contact with other languages) and, eventually at some point when there are no speakers left, it dies. Thomason describes several mechanisms of language change that are influenced by contact. In her opinion, “[…] both linguistic and social factors must be considered in any full account of contact-induced change, regardless of whether the contact is between dialects or separate languages” (2001: 129). However, access to social information on how a given language is influenced by changes is limited, therefore, Thomason focuses only on the linguistic results of contact between two or more languages, although she highlights that “[t]hese may well not be the only mechanisms that exist” (ibidem). C o d e S w i t c h i n g (sometimes called code mixing) – occurs when speakers use material from two (or more) languages during the same conversation (Thomason 2001: 132). It takes place “[…] where contact with other languages is routine and socially pervasive” (Crystal [1997] 2003: 164). The influence of code switching on a language might be dramatic because, if language users want to communicate, they have to “[…] rely simultaneously
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